Advertisements Exploiting Children - 1837 Words

Are current practises of advertising to children exploitative? What restrictions should be placed on advertising to children? Up until recently, parents had been the intended target audience for advertising efforts aimed for children of young age groups. However it is now the children who have become the main focus. The growth in advertising channels reaching children and the privatisation of children’s media use have resulted in a dramatic increase in advertising directly intended for the eyes and ears of children (Wilcox et al. 2004). It is estimated that advertisers spend more than $12 billion a year on the youth market with more than 40,000 commercials each year. The current practises of advertising to young children definitely†¦show more content†¦Furthermore research on the language of advertisements, while used to promote products, may be purposefully constructed to confuse younger children at lower levels of cognitive development. Simple correlation research in the US indicates that children typically aged 2-6 years who view more television advertising request more products from their parents. This is known as pester power. It has been found that parents are more likely to buy products when kids ask for them in the shop (nag factor). As children age, they develop the cognitive capacity to contextualise and act critically on the observations made, reducing the amount of requests for products (Australian Communications and Media Authority, 2007). Children who are exposed to TV commercials for toys not only develop the initial idea for the toy but repeatedly pester their parents to buy it. This is exploitation on the parents’ behalf as it often causes parent-child conflict when the parents deny their children the product (Wilcox et al. 2004). Another troubling issue relating to child advertising exploitation is in reference to food ads. Half of the advertisements in the UK directed at children concern food. There are little ads emphasising healthy eating and since the start of television advertising, the largest proportion of ads aimed at children has always been unhealthy food products (Gunter, Oates amp; Blades 2005). The Australian Communications and Media Authority (2007) detailed theShow MoreRelated Advertising Manipulates People Essay1111 Words   |  5 Pagessurrounded by advertising. From the time our alarm clock wakes us up in the morning until we set it at night, our brains are bombarded with advertisements. Ads play a huge role in our lives, telling us what to buy, what car to drive, how our families should interact, and what we should look like. The business of Advertising is built on persuasion. Advertisements attempt to persuade us that we are not rich enough, pretty enough, thin enough, family oriented eno ugh, and the list goes on. To put it moreRead MoreThe Effects Of Advertising On Teens On The World Today1232 Words   |  5 PagesCommunication Complications in Advertisements Teenagers views on the world today Advertisements surround us, and everyday they affect the unknowing minds of the younger generations. Researches have been investigating this topic for years, as the strategies these advertisements use are incredibly effective. This is shown through Pechmann Reibling (2006), Godbold Pfau (2000), Belstock, Connolly, Carpenter, Tucker (2008), Targeting teens. (1998) and What is the impact of advertising on teens?Read MoreMcdonalds Ethical Issues1140 Words   |  5 Pagescase, the main issue is the ethical criticism of the fast food giant, McDonald, in Europe. By referring to the case, the organizational ethical issues which are filled around McDonald consist of food health, ill-treatment of animals, exploitation of children, and destruction of rainforests. Besides, anti-globalization, anti-American, anti-McDonald’s activism, and Europe governments had also been the concerns and ethical challenges for the fast food giant. First of all, we will touch the field of foodRead MoreMcdonalds Ethical Issues1125 Words   |  5 Pagescase, the main issue is the ethical criticism of the fast food giant, McDonald, in Europe. By referring to the case, the organizational ethical issues which are filled around McDonald consist of food health, ill-treatment of animals, exploitation of children, and destruction of rainforests. Besides, anti-globalization, anti-American, anti-McDonald’s activism, and Europe governments had also been the concerns and ethical challenges for the fast food giant. First of all, we will touch the field of foodRead MoreViolence And Tragedy : Staples Of Journalism1499 Words   |  6 Pagessurging through the public eye, and is a classic case of the charities exploiting children through publishing. Johnathan Benthall (1993) describes publishing such images as ‘generating a ‘brand image’ of African impotence and misery’ [p.186]. As another writer noted, â€Å"The general public has a morbid fascination with violence and tragedy, yet this same public accuses journalists of being insensitive and cynical and of exploiting victims of tragedy† (Brown, 1987) [Cited in Lester, Paul. 1991. [p.43]]Read MoreMarketing Campaign For A Product And The Target Market1262 Words   |  6 PagesTarget Marketing Advertisements and numerous other marketing tactics are everywhere you look; a great amount of companies does some sort of marketing with their products. Companies look for ways to get their products noticed and to win you over as a customer. Planning and research is crucial before marketing to consumers. In their analysis, they narrow down who would buy their products or utilize their service, and they target market those consumers. Their whole advertisement campaign for a productRead MoreThe Influence of Media on Teenagers Diet788 Words   |  4 PagesThe Influence of Media on Obese Teenager’s Diet Introduction Media influence Food product choice is overwhelming as well as TV commercials and print advertisements that want to sell their food products to us. Who to believe? How to choose? Do you trust what is shown to you? Obviously, it’s up to each of us to decide what we eat but if we’re constantly bombarded with images of food every time we pick up a magazine then we’re going to be swayed in what we choose. The advertising of snack andRead MoreThe Impact Of Consumerism939 Words   |  4 Pagesdefinition boils down to people getting more people to buy more products is a good thing. However, things aren’t always as they seem. In order to get people to be interested in your product, there is lots of advertisement involved and this of course costs money. Unfortunately, with lots of advertisements, they may not tell the whole truth of a product, or they may target one specific age or race group. Getting consumers to buy products is a good thing, but the lengths people go at isnt. In order to getRead MoreBanning Tobacco Companies From Advertising Their Products And Sponsoring Sports And Cultural Events Essay958 Words   |  4 PagesIt is a typical knee-jerk reaction by any Government to create some kind of popularity for itself. The tobacco industry was a major contributor to the State Exchequer. The people who didn’t agree with the ban challenged that by putting a ban on advertisements and sponsorships by tobacco companies, the state was effectively stepping in to tell smokers that they were incompetent of deciding by themselves what was good or bad for their health and that, therefore it had to play the role of a responsibleRead MoreBan On Tobacco Advertisements By The Government Of India864 Words   |  4 Pagestrade.† (ICMR, 2001) Another argument that is used is the supposed advertisement to children. In the United States, the RJ Reynolds Tobacco Company had to withdraw its animated camel mascot named â€Å"Joe Carmel† because of a ruling by the California Supreme Court stating that, â€Å"†¦the company could be prosecuted for exploiting minors†¦The accusation was that the slick, colorful advertisements (using an animated camel) appealed to the children and encouraged them to smoke.† (ICMR,2001) A third argument used

Racism And Its Multidimensionality A Road Block

Lily Sanders Mr. Chan AP Literature 20 February 2017 Racism and its Multidimensionality: a Road Block in the Path to Self Discovery Ralph Waldo Ellison’s Invisible Man describes the plight of a black man growing up and coming to terms with his identity. The â€Å"invisible man† is not literally invisible, rather invisibility is used to describe the cultural implications of blackness and his inability to fit into stereotypical black molds. Some of the stereotypes that the narrator encounters are indisputably racist and subjugating. However, some stereotypes are idealized in both the black community and by outsiders, perpetuating the narrator s feelings of being lost. Racism has an overwhelming presence in this novel, but so does more†¦show more content†¦[...] They shouted hostile phrases at me. But I did not understand.† (Ellison 31) The biting and malicious laughter that the narrator describes is the perfect example of the racism that the narrator must overcome in the conquest to find his true self. He is publicly humiliated in order to achieve something honorable and to attain a hi gher social status. Another example of blatant racism is delivered through imagery. At one point in the novel the narrator takes up a job at Liberty Paints. At this job they only make paint in one shade, â€Å"Optic White†. This shade alone would not be a cause for concern, but when coupled with the company’s slogan, the color’s discriminatory nature is clear. The narrator explains the brand’s advertisements, â€Å"Ahead of me a huge electric sign announced its message through the drifting strands of fog: Keep America Pure With Liberty Paints.† (Ellison 196). Purity, historically speaking, connotes whiteness. Keeping America â€Å"pure†, or more modern, making America â€Å"great again†, essentially means to keep America white. Black men working at a company producing only white products is symbolic of the system of white supremacy. Another type of racism that the narrator has to combat throughout the duration of the novel are the more subtle and â€Å"unintentional† attacks. These exhibitions of racism may not be intended, but they happen nonetheless. A common stereotype surrounding black men, is a fictionalized idea of hyper masculinity and nearly

A Critical Reflection of My Own Experience of Leadership Free Essays

Introduction This critical reflection is focused on my own experience of leadership whereby I suggest areas for my own development. I am also using herewith leadership theory and concepts in analysing and evaluating the leadership case that I am presenting. Leadership is a process or series of actions directed toward group goals; it is a consistently demonstrated pattern of behaviour with certain objectives (Ricketts and Ricketts, 2011). We will write a custom essay sample on A Critical Reflection of My Own Experience of Leadership or any similar topic only for you Order Now The leadership experience that this paper tackles is centred on my previous supervisor in a previous job, who I call â€Å"Mr. M.† I deem it interesting to use my experience with his leadership case as I believe this would allow me to suggest areas for my own development. The case is therefore an observation of leadership in action where I am not a leader. Critical Reflection: Analysis and Evaluation Mr. M delegates tasks as a way to manage the myriad responsibilities within the workplace. Often, meetings are called for in order to update the whole team on the work that members have accomplished. Mr. M’s listening skills were excellent, in that he never missed any single point of information being related to him. From this set of information, he was able to synthesise clearly the ideas being presented to him; regard each chunk of information as a potential contribution to what the team was trying to achieve, and identify the problems and challenges along the way. He did all this with the help of the team, in which it must also be noted that teamwork is a necessary element of leadership, which must be considered in successful leadership (Parker, 2008). A good attribute that was commendable of Mr. M was his ability to see positively a certain scenario despite our perceived griminess of it. He was a democratic leader who held the final responsibility whilst delegating authority to others. With his leadership, our communication – both upward and downward – was active. There was likewise high employee commitment because we were able to participate in the decision-making process of our team. This way, Mr. M. was able to encourage employees to function beyond just being rank-and-file workers. This concept of leadership was also present in Pride and colleagues (2010) in their discussion of leadership styles. Moreover, this scenario was harmonious with transformational leadership theory, which is focused on people’s interaction with others as they create a solid relationship that leads to trust, which in turn leads to increased intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in both the leader and the followers (Gittens, 2009; Lu ssier and Achua, 2010). Job autonomy was also encouraged much in the team and the organisation itself, with a minimum space for supervision from the supervisor himself. This way, as a member of the team, I was able to enhance my commitment to the job as I likewise felt being the one who owned the tasks and felt a sense of achievement in return. Greater job autonomy certainly created identity in the job amongst us who were tasked to fulfill them. This atmosphere of responsibility and autonomy made me and the others appreciate our jobs better. This was also parallel to what Bligh and Riggio (2013) say about autonomy and job control in which they claimed that they (autonomy and job control) lead to employee empowerment. May I say that my own engagement with my work was drawn from high levels of empowerment and autonomy, which my supervisor helped to foster, especially in leader-follower distance, with the leader not always being present to look over the followers’ shoulders (e.g. Bligh and Riggio, 2013 ). Transactional theory could be found in the case example, whereby it demonstrates a transaction between the leader and the followers, giving importance to a positive and mutually beneficial relationship (Martin et al., 2006). The effectiveness of this theory is found in the development of a mutually reinforcing environment, for which individual goals and those of the organisation are in synch. Furthermore, problem solving was not a sole task of our supervisor, but one that involved everyone in our team; thus, a group-shared activity. Mr. M acted as much to take the role of a facilitator in his intention to involve everyone in problem solving, laying down his views and opinions toward a particular direction, without dismissing others’ perspectives. The path-goal theory is seen in this example, whereby the leader directs activities, with varying manners. The theory maintains that the leader sees a path that needs to be trod and gets the group to accomplish it by commanding, rewarding, soliciting suggestions, etc. (Griffin and Moorhead, 2012). However, I came to know that he did not go through development programmes for creative problem solving, which I think is necessary, considering that for a leader, the use of collaborative skills and creativity techniques is part of the leadership strategy, just as what Higgins (2012) had suggested. In this regard, since Mr. M enabled his people to work well in delegation, he was able to function well as a coach. He was the kind who was willing to delegate and was comfortable to hand off assignments to the team. The kind of matters he delegated to those he led was not simply those referring to tasks but to responsibilities, which also harmonised with the discussion of Lussier and Achua (2010). Mr. M was not the kind of leader who would think that he was the boss with adequate knowledge and experience as an approach to problem solving. Solving problems by a leader because he thinks he is the most capable one is what Tracy (2013) called reverse delegation. Instead, Mr. M avoids committing this reverse delegation by making us define the problem clearly, developing a range of solutions, and selecting a solution being recommended. I believe Mr. M was able to grow his staff – which was one of his major responsibilities as a leader – by helping them develop problem-sol ving skills. I once asked him for a solution to a certain problem, and his responses was (as always) â€Å"What do you think must be done in this situation?† Thus, in many cases, he was able to make team members determine the best course of action for a certain problem or situation. There were times when a problem seemed too overwhelming to be handled by a member and would seek his help, to which his usual response would be to insist that the person must learn how to do it, with his guidance. Incidentally, Tracy (2013) stated that in case an employee returns to the leader with a complain that he/she could not do the job rightly, it is better for both of them if the leader guides the person in accomplishing the job rather than taking it back and adding it to his load, which is probably full. As much as he could, Mr. M does not take sides or intervene in interpersonal problems, to which some people in our team would attempt to make him a mediator or a counselor. His tendency was not to express an opinion showing favour to one party over the other. This stance was also taken as positive by Tracy (2013), who said that as a rule, one would not be able to have the full story, and once a leader takes a particular position, it might mean weakening his authority with both persons in the future. As a result of good performance, the performing employee was rewarded by the leader. Areas for My Own Development Based on the case presented, the suggested areas for my own development as a leader are: delegating responsibilities to my team members, promoting decision-making through problem solving, and motivating the workforce through a high degree of autonomy and job control. I have learned through this exercise that delegating responsibilities is not only to free or unburden the leader of the many workloads but to provide opportunities for growth. Similarly, involving the whole team toward a problem-solving activity results in providing an opportunity for decision making. Noteworthy here is the fact that decision making allows employees to become more involved in the job (Bhattacharya and McGlothlin, 2011). I am also noting that a high level of autonomy in the job necessitates corresponding skills sets for the work, in which employees with high job autonomy tend to perceive greater responsibility for either the success or failure of their efforts, and are also likely to experience increased job satisfaction (Lewis et al., 2007). My members’ skills must therefore be in synch with the level of autonomy required in their job, and that I could help them work on developing their skills through related training and coaching. Conclusion To conclude, the leader plays a crucial role in the development of members and in achieving organisational goals. This insight was demonstrated by this critical reflection through its discussion of delegation, problem solving, job autonomy, and maintaining one’s authority by not taking sides in members’ problems with interpersonal relationships. Mr. M was able to promote trust and motivation both for himself and for his team members, typical of transformational leadership theory. Transactional theory had also demonstrated a specific transaction based on a mutually beneficial relationship between the leader and the followers. This case also complemented with the path-goal theory in which the leader guides the members in treading a desired path. The case led to identification of my own areas for development. References Bhattacharya, A. and McGlothlin, J. D. (2011) Occupational Ergonomics: Theory and Applications. Second Edition. NW: CRC Press. Bligh, M. C. and Riggio, R. E. (2013) Exploring Distance in Leader-Follower Relationships: When Near is Far and Far is Near. NY: Routledge. Gittens, B. E. (2008) Perceptions of the Applicability of Transformational Leadership Behavior to the Leader Role of Academic Department Chairs: A Study of Selected Universities in Virginia. Parkway: ProQuest LLC. Griffin, R. W. and Moorhead, G. (2012) Organizational Behavior. Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage-Learning. Higgins, J. M. (2012) The role of HR in fostering innovation in organizations. In G. M. Benscoter (Ed.) The Encyclopedia of Human Resource Management: Thematic Essays (pp. 226-238). NJ: John Wiley Sons. Lewis, P., Goodman, S., Fandt, P., and Michlitsch, J. (2007) Management: Challenges for Tomorrow’s Leaders. Mason, OH: Thomson Higher Education. Lussier, R. and Achua, C. (2010) Leadership: Theory, Application, and Skill Development. Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning. Martin, B., Cashel, C., Wagstaff, M., and Breunig, M. (2006) Outdoor Leadership: Theory and Practice. IL: Human Kinetics. Parker, G. M. (2008) Team Players and Teamwork: New Strategies for Developing Successful Collaboration. NJ: John Wiley Sons. Pride, W., Hughes, R., and Kapoor, J. (2010) Business. Tenth Edition. Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning. Ricketts, C. and Ricketts, J. (2011) Leadership: Personal Development Career Success. Third Edition. Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning. Tracy, B. (2013) Delegation and Supervision. NY: AMACOM. How to cite A Critical Reflection of My Own Experience of Leadership, Essay examples

Property Law for Lease - Mortgage and Application - myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theProperty Law for Lease, Mortgage and Application. Answer: Property Co-ownership is a form of ownership where two or more persons share the ownership of any property. Co-ownership is a way that enables the Australian young people, in particular, to purchase houses that are available at high prices and is unaffordable for most of the people. As it is, a known fact that every person dreams of owning their own home which becomes unattainable to realize owing to the incline in the prices of the house, in particular for those who are single. While couples tend to pool their resources and incomes to be able to afford a home, it becomes very difficult for those who are singles as they rely on single source of income and one savings account[1]. This inconvenience makes them resort to co-ownership for purchasing property either with a friend or family member. Where two or more persons take an estate or interest in land on lease, mortgage, application, transfer such persons are required to hold the land or property as joint tenants or tenants in commo n. This clearly signifies that co-ownership is an increasing trend in Australia, especially for young peoples and those who are single. This essay discusses about the advantages and the necessity of co-ownership in Australia. When two or more persons take a property on tenancy, they do it as either joint tenants or tenants in common. The reasons behind the Australians opting for co-ownership are two-fold. Firstly, co-ownership provides the Australians, with the affordability to purchase houses that are otherwise, unaffordable for them[2]. Further, for people who are purchasing houses for the first time, it becomes more difficult for they have to put a deposit together. The purchasers who are young and those who are single and rely upon the single income and savings source, finds it more difficult compared to those who purchase such homes by way of co-ownership. People purchasing homes in co-ownership have the option to split the deposit as both the co-owners pool together their respective savings that improves the position of the co-owners with respect to the deposit of the homes. Secondly, there is a trend of late marriage in Australia, which implies majority of the Australians usually do not purchase a property or home of their own. Therefore, single persons may consider their friends and siblings to assist them to achieve an investment property. Another reason that leads to an incline in the co-ownership is an increase in the borrowing capacity that is, the persons sharing the ownership gets to split the deposit money which otherwise would have been paid by the single person purchasing or renting a house[3]. The advantage of pooling together the deposit of the house is that it enables the co-owners to join their savings and pay a higher deposit, which enables them to avoid the expensive mortgage insurance. As mentioned above that, in order to purchase a property or an interest in land by co-ownership, the co-owners are said to hold such interest in land or the property as tenants either in common or as joint tenants[4]. Tenants in common are a form of tenancy where each person has a share of the property and they own the property purchase or taken on lease together. For instance A, B and C purchase a property for $90,000. A makes a contribution of $20000, B makes a contribution of $30000 and C makes a contribution of $ 40000. Here, the purchase of the property has been made by way of co-ownership and A, B and C are the co-owners of the property. The transfer shall be followed as A shall be entitled to 2/9 share; B shall be entitled to 3/9 share and C shall be entitled to 4/9 share being the tenants in common[5]. Each of the tenants has a right to deal with their part of the property, which is separate from the others, in their respective ways. This implies that each of these tenants is entitled to mortgage or sell their part of the property. In case, one of the tenant dies, his part or share of the property passes in accordance with the instructions made by such deceased person in his will, which implies that the tenant has specified the organization or person that shall be entitled to the share of the deceased person with respect to the property. Joint tenancy, on the other hand, is a form of tenancy where the tenants of the property are entitled to equal shares of the property irrespective of the fact the number of persons hold the property as tenants[6]. On the death of one of the joint tenants, the share passes to the other joint tenants in equal share in case there is more than on tenant, irrespective of the fact whether the deceased person actually intended to transfer the share to the other tenant, as may be set out in his will. According to section 126 (1) of the Property Law Act 1969 (WA) was applied in Pateman Anor v Daw Koh Anor [2007][7], which stated that there is no right of survivorship in tenancy in common unlike in joint tenancy[8]. In Joint tenancy, then rights of survivorship exists which implies that the interests of the deceased joint tenant shall pass on to the surviving tenants. It is a fact that there are risks associated with co-ownerships, which might make it undesirable for several persons. Such risks include affordability for future homes may be affected because the co-owners are jointly responsible for the taking loans for the deposits of the house, it often become difficult to arrange for a future loan for another property. This is because; the affordability is assessed on the basis of the income of an individual. If one of the co-owners wishes to purchase a second property, the bank shall consider the first loan taken by the co-owner and he shall be solely responsible for the loan. There may be issues pertaining to the sale of the property, where one co-owner wants to sale off the property and the other owner does not, and the matter is driven to court, which is not only expensive but also stressful. Another issue that may arise in co-ownership is the responsibility regarding the mortgage. If all the co-owners sign the loan document, every borrower is accountable individually for each others debts. Under such circumstances, is any one of the co-owner fails to make his/her loan payment, the bank shall consider the other co-owners liable for the failure to make the loan payments[9]. There is issues related to joint tenancy as well which arises if there is a default in the categorizing of an interest in land as a joint tenant due to the existence of the four unites. Such default may result in change in status of the joint tenants as tenants in common. Nevertheless, considering the big picture, majority of the Australians merely dream of having their own house but are incapable of realizing their dream, given the high prices of the houses or properties. With the help of co-ownership, they get a chance to realize this dream of owning a house or property[10]. As discussed above, co-ownership involves two or more persons owning a property, which reduces the load of a single purchaser to pay the deposit amount. The purchasers may co-own the property either as joint tenants or as tenants in common. It enhances the borrowing capacity for the borrowers, which involves splitting of the deposit. It is an advantage for young persons, singles and those who have low earning incomes. These individuals get the opportunity to afford properties that they could not have been able to purchase property. From the above discussion, it can be inferred that it is equally beneficial for those who have high-income capacity as they become entitled to have great tax benefits on a property and enables them to reduce the taxable income or become entitled to receive a greater tax refund per annum[11]. The tenants in common do not possess the right of survivorship but a tenant in common is entitled to hold an undivided share in the property owned by them and is entitled to possession. Unlike joint tenancy, the tenants in common do not require to have unity of interest, hence they are entitled to hold unequal shares. Each of the joint tenants has an equal right to possession of each of the part that is held by the purchasers and to the whole of the purchased property but such the tenant shall not be entitled to any right to any part of the property. It is sufficient that co-ownership exists in the form of tenancy in common in the country as it enables individuals to purchase property or an interest in land without having to pay for deposit alone and are entitled to own the property to the extent of the capital deposited by them. It also entitles them to sell off or mortgage their part of the property, that is separate form te remaining tenants. Reference list Altmann, Erika. "Apartments, co-ownership and sustainability: Implementation barriers for retrofitting the built environment."Journal of environmental policy planning16.4 (2014): 437-457. Blandy, Sarah.14th Australasian Property Law Teachers Conference 2017 Beyond Sole Ownership Curtin Law School, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia 2629 September 2017 Draft Conference Programme. Diss. Faculty of Law, University of Southampton, 2017. Briggs, Kristie. "Co-owner relationships conducive to high quality joint patents."Research Policy44.8 (2015): 1566-1573. Duncan, William D., et al. "Property law review issues paper 4Mortgages, Co-ownership, Encroachment and Mistake." (2016). Hulse, Kath, and Terry Burke. "Private rental housing in Australia: Political inertia and market change."Housing in 21st-century Australia: People, practices and policies(2016): 139-152. Kraatz, Judy A., et al. "Rethinking social housing: efficient, effective and equitable."Sustainable Built Environment National Research Centre Research Report75 (2015). Palmer, Jane, et al. "Green tenants: practicing a sustainability ethics for the rental housing sector."Local Environment20.8 (2015): 923-939. Pateman Anor v Daw Koh Anor [2007] WASCA 85 Property Law Act 1969 (WA) section 126 (1) Rigsby, Bruce. "A survey of property theory and tenure types." Sydney University Press, 2014. Roberts, Mike B., Anna Bruce, and Iain MacGill. "PV in Australian Apartment BuildingsOpportunities and Barriers."Asia Pacific Solar Research Conference. 2015. Robertson, Courtney. "Casenote: State of Western Australia v Alexander Brown and Ors [2014] HCA 8."Indigenous Law Bulletin8.12 (2014): 24.

Brandt Wallace Essay Research Paper Is language free essay sample

Brandt Wallace Essay, Research Paper Is linguistic communication, or the existent act of speech production, entirely created by the variety meats of address? It is possible that some bookmans might hold that communicating is non wholly vocal, yet how many of these same bookmans would hold that linguistic communication is non restricted to the vocalized address that is so common in mundane life? This paper will reason that music, specifically instrumental wind, can be characterized as an alternate linguistic communication method. In order to garner information to compose this paper, research was conducted at a downtown saloon by detecting a four piece wind set and its audience. On first detecting with the impression of # 8220 ; wind as linguistic communication # 8221 ; in head, one really of import inquiry arose-what types of things does linguistic communication convey? Frankly, the reply to this inquiry could go on into book length, but there are several cardinal correlativities that the research revealed between the maps of wind and verbal speech production as linguistic communication types. We will write a custom essay sample on Brandt Wallace Essay Research Paper Is language or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The most obvious similarity is that wind, like verbal speech production, is used to explicate thoughts and narratives in great item and emotion. Wind expresses these thoughts and narratives to the audience through two distinguishable entities, group conversation and personal reading. On explicating these entities, one must understand the order in which they are given to the audience. The bulk of the pieces that were performed used a common subject or tune, some vocals holding multiple tunes. In each vocal, this tune was expressed in one of two ways. In some vocals, the set would get down with the tune and so come in a # 8220 ; solo period, # 8221 ; where each instrumentalist would solo. Before reasoning the piece, the set would bind the piece together by playing the tune once more. In other vocals, the set would exchange between tune and solo until each instrumentalist had soloed. The tune will be referred to as the # 8220 ; conversation. # 8221 ; The solo is like an single # 8217 ; s personal ideas on the conversation. In the wind tune, or conversation, a subject is presented by the full set. The tune, repeated throughout a vocal, is a mode of # 8220 ; talking # 8221 ; that connects the wind musicians together, therefore functioning as a agency of solidarity. Not merely does the tune function this intent, but besides they refer to one another as # 8220 ; cat # 8221 ; or # 8220 ; man. # 8221 ; This wind registry singles them out as a closed group, a group whose members have a close brotherhood. Much like the term # 8220 ; physician, # 8221 ; these are rubrics that one has earned as a wind instrumentalist. Person can # 8220 ; speak # 8221 ; his/her ain sentiments and feelings through a solo, yet everyone ever restates the tune in understanding and unison. This melodious subject is like the subject of treatment. It is the conversation being # 8220 ; spoken # 8221 ; by the instrumentalists. In a sense, the instrumentalists frequently include the audience in their conversation by reassigning a peculiar temper or emotion from the tune to the psyche of the audience. Sometimes the audience relates Ts o what the conversation is saying and acknowledges this through assorted loud verbal remarks. For illustration, â€Å"play it! † was frequently heard. The tune as the conversation is normally instead structured and has a limited vocabulary, single notes being like words, and a structured grammar represented by the cardinal signature, but has the power to convey complex ideas, such as those related to love. The solo is the unstructured self-expression of a instrumentalist. The self-generated improvisation of the solo enables a instrumentalist to hold a broader vocabulary. It is a clip when a instrumentalist makes personal remarks on the conversation. The instrumentalists take turns # 8220 ; discoursing # 8221 ; the subject through their solos. During solos, instrumentalists sometimes use their instruments to mime vocalic sounds such as laughter, shrieks, cries, and calls. These sounds help the audience to understand more clearly the account of a instrumentalist, for even though the audience may non talk the linguistic communication, at least it can associate to the emotion of what is being said. Each musician uses his/her solo to construe and notice on the conversation otherwise, even sometimes taking the clip to state his/her ain narrative, yet, as a regulation, will neer roll excessively far from the emotion and subject of the conversation between his/her fellow set members. There is one exclusion to the regulation. If encouraged verbally by the audience, largely through cries of exhilaration, esteem, and credence, so the instrumentalist will get down to # 8220 ; speak # 8221 ; straight to the audience, frequently going louder and more alive, in the procedure rolling off from his/her original conversation. The instrumentalist is merely fall ining in the audience # 8217 ; s exhilaration. In a manner, he/she is thanking them for their remarks on what they wanted to hear. He/she will so fall back into his/her original subject with the set until the solo is finished. Not until a solo is finished can another musician start to # 8220 ; speak, # 8221 ; unless clearly expecte d. When expected, several instrumentalists would solo together, merchandising short # 8220 ; licks # 8221 ; back and Forth. This serves as a # 8220 ; treatment # 8221 ; on the conversation. It can be used so that two or more instrumentalists may hold on a subject, or reason back and Forth. This frequently sounds similar to a call and response method. If soloing entirely, it would be taboo for a musician to disrupt another instrumentalist # 8217 ; s solo. Clear bend taking seems to be rather understood in wind. At the decision of a wind piece, the subject, or conversation, is ever restated by the set to the audience. If the audience reacts to this decision by clapping and smiling, so the set knows that they have achieved precisely what they wanted to. If an audience member does non like the initial conversation, it is likely that he/she will at least relate to one of the personal readings of the conversation. By detecting the two spectrums of wind, the tune and the solo, one can come to the apprehension that wind can easy be considered a linguistic communication signifier.

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating Conjunctions Coordinating Conjunctions Coordinating Conjunctions By Sharon Coordinating conjunctions are some of the handiest, dandiest words in the English language. Essentially, they help us string our thoughts together in a way that is complex and meaningful, and without them writing would be very short and choppy. You can remember the coordinating conjunctions by memorizing the word: FANBOYS = for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so Coordinating conjunctions are used between independent clauses, and paired with a comma. For example, the following sentences can be combined with a coordinating conjunction: This place has the worst food I have ever tasted. I will never eat here again. Combined with a comma and coordinating conjunction: This place has the worst food I have ever tasted, so I will never eat here again. Some other examples: I love you, but I can not marry you. I want to go to the store, and I want to go to her birthday party. He had not known her long, yet he felt very close to her. Coordinating conjunctions are some of the most commonly used words and very easily misused by leaving out a comma or putting it in the wrong place. Be mindful that the parts you join are complete sentences that can stand alone. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Grammar category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:70 Idioms with HeartFive Spelling Rules for "Silent Final E"What Is the Meaning of "Hack?"

Cybersecurity Profile Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Cybersecurity Profile - Essay Example In conclusion, it is important to note that security controls and profiles will vary with information systems in different organizations. In this case, the security controls inherent in the Agency are crucial controls that are aimed at maintaining the privacy and confidentiality of the data and information. To achieve a complete and sound security profile, the management, operational and technical controls must be implemented to complement each other for effective results. Planning control lays a foundation for other management controls, this can be done through security policy and procedures and security plan. Basic operational controls such as security awareness and training are crucial in any organization. Through security awareness and training policy and procedures and user awareness, security can be achieved. Finally, the technical controls offer a final remedy for security concerns in the organization. Basically, the identification and authentication control is one of the effe ctive technical controls. By user identification and authentication and device identification and authentication controls, the agency can address the issue of unauthorized access. The identification and authentication procedures and guidelines in the agency require that each device is identified and authenticated before a connection is established. Confidentiality and security can easily be breached through intruding devices. The agency has a device identification and authentication procedure in place that is guided by the IRM of IRS.

Banking policy in Burma Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Banking policy in Burma - Essay Example The indigenous banks of Burma were not started, until after the county’s independence in 1948.The banks that started operations in Burma during the colonial times, targeted the export trade of rice. They centralized their operations around Rangoon, engaging mainly in Chettiar lending, except a few like Dawson’s bank, which exited Burma after the 1942 invasion by the Japanese (Econ 335 a). Remarkable in the philosophical and the ideological banking profile of colonial Burma, are the exchange banks, which initiated western banking services at Burma. These exchange banks trace their origins to the trading firms of Burma, which mediated the commercial dealings of Burma with the outside world – throughout the nineteenth century. These firms include the Wallace Brothers, which was a remarkable example of the transition from being merchants, towards assuming the role of merchant bankers. By the end of the 19th century, the traders and the merchants that had operated as banks across the British Empire, either converted or left business for international banks. Most of these banks were headquartered at London, including Lloyds Bank and the National Bank of India (Econ 335 a). Most of the banks did not engage in the service of the entire population, particularly the countryside, but focused on the financing of rice trade, among a few other commodities at Rangoon. The finances of these banks were mostly outsourced from outside Burma, particularly London; the banks, later diversified towards the collection of deposits from European professionals, managers, and Burmese and Indian traders. The banking sector of colonial Burma was characterized by trade finance and the sale of bills of exchange. The bill of exchange is among the finance tools that revolutionized international trade during the nineteenth century; the instrument allowed exporters to receive the value of their exports, immediately after the sale of the exports, and in the local currency. The service was offered by exchange banks, which marked a reduction in the risks borne by exporters and importers; it also increased their access to credit. The bills of exchange were a short-term credit instrument, ordinarily 60 days, and not longer than 90 days. Banking institutions like the British banks, concentrated in the provision of financial services, and funding to businesses, particularly European as well as the colonial administration and its agencies. For instance, the Imperial bank offered wholesale financing to Chettairs, thus was an import financier of the Burmese agricultural sector. Despite the dominance of British banks, non-British exchange banks like Citibank started their operations in Asia, during 1812. The bank started its operations at Rangoon in 1919. For example, some Chinese banks arrived into Burma, immediately after the completion of Burma Road, in 1938 targeting the upcoming opportunities (Econ 335 a). There was the rise of Burmese banks, including  "U Rai Gyaw Thoo and Dawson’s Bank†. Dawson’s Bank was started in 1905, with the role of assisting Burmese agricultural players, so that they could free their lands from Indian-money-tenders. The local banks sought closeness to the farmers, so that they would ensure that they would get cheap credit, and, so that the banks would ensure that they used the money for the specified purpose. U Rai Gyaw Thoo was among the first Burmese-operated and owned bank, which grew out of shipping, trading and money lending. There

Health Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

Health Economics - Essay Example The healthcare system consists of all the people and the action they undertake, whose primary effort is to improve citizens’ health of a particular state. The potential scope of a healthcare system may include the public and private sectors as well as a spectrum of providers as well as funders who may improve health. A full range of organizational form is more likely to be visible in a developed world healthcare delivery system (Aspalter, Uchida & Gauld, 2012, p.2). Modern healthcare systems are not all about delivering personal healthcare. The institutions that govern the provision of healthcare are concerned with mechanisms in which the individuals can access healthcare such as the earned insurance settlements and the social citizenship. They are also concerned with the mechanisms responsible for deciding the amount of resources allocated to financing the provision of health care services such as setting regulatory frameworks as well as governing via public management. Institutions governing the provision of healthcare include mechanisms for regulating hospitals such as a mix of differently owned hospitals and the amount of public regulation as well as regulation of doctors. This is especially different forms of private interest government (Giarelli, 2010). This is a reflection of the centrality of hospitals and doctors when it comes to the provision of healthcare (Giarelli, 2010, p.189). All the modern healthcare systems face common challenges. These challenges are due to globalization, rapid technological advancements, medical progress and changes in demography. Consequently, these systems have no option but to change the organization in the way they it is governed and provide healthcare (Walshe & Smith, 2011, p.145). The health care system in the UK initially followed an insurance health model introduced in 1911 by Lloyd George (Walshe & Smith, 2011). At the time, many systems covered only the industrial workers and

Effects Of Offenders And The Community Criminology Essay

Effects Of Offenders And The Community Criminology Essay The use of incarceration as a punitive and rehabilitative approach to crime has been around for centuries. The use of penitentiaries began in the 18th century in England. The British society started a move away from corporal punishment and more towards imprisonment with the hope that it would reform the mind and body (Jackson, 1997). These changes eventually paved the way for the establishment of penitentiaries throughout Europe and onto the United States. Historically, imprisonment was based on the concept of punishing those who wronged society, by inflicting suffering on the body. Today its strives to achieve its basic tenets consisting of punishment, deterrence and rehabilitation. In focusing on the United States, over the past thirty years the country has experienced an unprecedented rise in the use of incarceration. In 1972 there were 330,000 people residing in prisons and jails, today there are 2.1 million (King, Mauer Young, 2005). During this time span, the population rose b y less than 40 percent yet the number of people in prison and jail rose by more than 500 percent. To explain this dramatic change, we must look to factors such as changing crime rates, demographics, cultural shits and politics (King et. al., 2005). Today, there are many conservative, steadfast politicians who bank on getting tough on crime. In this light, we must evaluate whether institutionalization is the best method for diminishing crime and whether those offenders being imprisoned, are being set up for success or for failure, especially in their ability to reintegrate back into society once their time has been served. We must address the fact that these offenders, once imprisoned, encounter serious psychological changes and stigmatizations. The incarceration of an individual affects more than just the individual, but also family, peers and the community. The release of an offender back into society leaves one vulnerable and scared by an ex-con label. Their reintegration back int o society is a critical stage that is dependant on certain vital factors, which contribute to whether one will inevitably lead a continued life of crime or a life of desistance. Is incarceration really a remedy to crime, a so-called deterrent for future criminal activity, or merely a mechanism for labeling someone as a deviant member of society? It is important to assess what is actually known about the impact of imprisonment on crime control and with that in mind we must examine how incarceration rates have increased. The use of incarceration has significantly grown over time and the United States has become by its own creation, an extremely punitive system. The enactment of tougher sentencing rules, restrictive release patterns and the abolition of parole in some states have supported a system based on this concept. Many advocates of the system, including the Department of Justice, support this approach and have stated that tough sentencing means less crime (King et. al., 2005). However, an overview of changes in incarceration and crime in all fifty states revealed that there is no consistent relationship between the two. Crime did not decrease merely because incarceration was increasing (King et. al., 2005). Therefore, incarceration may not be the most effective way to achieve results in crime control. Advocates believe t hat by locking someone up, they can physically no longer commit crime. This concept may very well uphold to be true, but what about after their release from prison? Will they be more susceptible to or away from crime? Introducing someone to a life of incarceration inevitably leads to institutionalization and the effects of prisonization, which can seriously hinder ones adaptation and reintegration process. Institutionalization is a term used to describe the process by which inmates are shaped and transformed by the institutional environment in which they dwell. Sociologist, Irving Goffman described in his book Asylums, that institutions were a place of residence and work where a large number of like-situated individuals, cut off from the wider society for an appreciable period of time, together lead an enclosed, formally administered round of life (King, 2000, p. 2). By this account, we can claim prisons to be a form of institution. Later, the term was also coined prisonization when it occurred in correctional settings (Haney, 2001). The term, often thought pejoratively, expresses the negative psychological effects of imprisonment. Goffman identified five modes for adapting to an institutional life. The first step involved a situational withdrawal, where prisoners begin to minimize their interaction with others. Next, prisoners form antagonistic behavior and refuse to cooperate with staff members and begin to show hostility towards the institution itself. This type of behavior will often result in prisoners being sentenced to the conditions of solitary confinement. Colonization is a step in which involves the prisoner making a transformation to which he or she becomes institutionalized. In this step, prisoners begin to feel that life in prison is more desirable than life outside the prison. Next is the conversion step, which leads prisoners to adopt to the behavior that the guards and facility regard them to be like. The last step in the adaptation mode is the so-called playing it cool segment. In this stage, prisoners stay out of trouble and conform to their surroundings so that when they are released, they ca n have a maximum chance, in the particular circumstances of eventually getting out of prison physically and psychologically undamaged (Haralambos Holborn, 1995 p. 306). Once an offender is confined to an incarcerated life, the prisoner often is forced to undergo a unique set of psychological changes in order to survive the prison experience. Prisoners must undergo serious adaptations and recognize the deprivations and frustrations that come along with a prison life. This is commonly referred to as the pains of imprisonment and most certainly carries certain psychological effects (Haney, 2001). Such psychological symptoms can include dependence on the institutional structure, hyper vigilance, interpersonal distrust, suspicion, emotional over-control, alienation, psychological distancing, social withdrawal, isolation, incorporation of exploitative norms of prison culture, diminished sense of self-worth and personal value and post-traumatic stress reactions to the pains of imprisonment (Haney, 2001). With the rate of incarceration increasing, it also brings about the changes in prison populations. As a result, the size of the U.S. prison population has led to widespread issues in overcrowding. Penologists have described this dilemma by claiming that the U.S. prisons are in crisis and have characterized each new level of overcrowding as unprecedented (Haney, 2001). The United States incarcerates more persons per capita than any other nation in the world. The U.S. rates have consistently been between four and eight times more than those for other nations such as Japan, Netherlands, United Kingdom and Australia (Haney, 2001). This combination of both overcrowding and rapid expansion of prison systems adversely affects the living conditions in these prisons. Overcrowding leads to jeopardized prisoner safety, compromised prison management, and limited prisoner access to meaningful programming. The rehabilitative process is in effect significantly hindered. Many sociologists, psychologists and psychiatrists, have studied the process of prisonization extensively and all agree that the process involves a unique set of psychological adaptations that often occur in varying degrees in response to the extraordinary demands of prison life (Haney, 2001). A prisoner must incorporate the norms of prison life into their habits of thinking, feeling, and acting. However, given todays expansion and overcrowding of prisons, this is a demanding and dangerous process. The prison environment is not a friendly one and many soft criminals leave prison as hardened criminals. Prison life can consist of many negative attributes, which affect a prisoners ability to rehabilitate. The more overcrowding in prisons, the less access to rehabilitation, which therefore leads to higher reconvictions rates (Hanks, 2008). The presence of gangs and violence within prisons, along with the feelings of anger, depression, rage and sadness all accompany incarcerated individua ls. Prisons are often the scenes of brutality, violence and stress to the point where many prisoners are concerned for their own safety. The increase in sentence lengths for prisoners also results in prisoners experiencing higher levels of psychological strains of imprisonment due to the longer periods of incarceration time. The psychological isolation of prison from ones community, the lack of prison visitation programs and the already scarce resources that have been used to maintain ties between prisoners and their families and the outside world, seriously affect the prisoners chances for survival and rehabilitation (Haney, 2001). Juveniles are especially more prone to the effects of prisonization. An example of such transformation is the case of Boston Billy. Billy spent half his life in prisons and jails and claimed that these institutions were horrible places that toughened up people up to a point that you dont care (Bhati Piquero, 2008). Once the institutionalization phase has been completed, the prisoner must eventually undergo their reintegration back into society. Facilitating the transition from prison back to the free world is a very delicate and critical stage. There are many stigmatizing aspects of incarceration, which may result in a prisoners inability to successfully make the transition. Prisons are aimed to essentially cure criminals of crime so they can be fit to reenter society, however, this concept may not be so encouraging. Studies show that whether a prison releasee will reoffend once back in society depends on their life trajectory and life course post prison life. Certain factors contribute to the indication of whether they will have a successful readjustment. However, the stigma of a deviant past and life in prison never leaves their mind. We live in a society that unfortunately judges those for doing time and often society is the culprit to the basis of their reoffending and self-fulfilling proph ecy to remain deviant. PRISON ISSUES Prisons have traditionally been coined schools of crime. The prison experience helps to build up resentment, expose prisoners to many skilled offenders who help to teach them many tricks of the trade. Many inmates will often go into prison as petty, nonviolent offenders who are released back into society as now serious, violent offenders. It is customary to state that two-thirds of all released prisoners will be back in prison again within three years of their release (Stevens, 2004). Since prison life is comprised of its own structure and institutional rules, a form of governing amongst this institution will exist. There are at least four sets of codes, or rules, that govern prison life: (1) the official administrative rules and regulations; (2) the convict code; (3) the color line; and (4) gang membership rules (Stevens, 2004). The official rules are the basic tenets of acceptable and unacceptable behaviors and rules. The convict code is an idealized description of how the perfect convict should behave. The color line is rather an invisible code, which one instantly becomes aware of when certain racial groups appear to be dominating or in control. Race tends to be a factor in many prison issues such as the determination of friendships, cell assignments and cell locations. This process is sometimes referred to as balkanization (Stevens, 2004). Gang codes also dominate some prison lives and tend to be underground outlines for criminal enterprises. Similar to Goffmans theory on institutionalization, Wheeler (1961), found that inmate commitment to prison society followed a U-shaped curve. When an inmate first enters the prison, they enter so still being committed to the rules of conventional society, however as time passes, their misbehavior increases. This misbehavior begins to reflect a commitment to inmate codes. As their release from prison is encroaching, they begin to renew a commitment to the values of the outside world. This can be viewed in a positive light because it signifies that most inmates orient themselves for law-abiding behavior shortly before they are released (Stevens, 2004). However, there remains no assurance in knowing that a released prisoner will avoid continuing a life of crime. LABELING THEORY IN CORRELATION TO INSTITUTIONALIZATION Labeling theorists argue that the state is to blame for anchoring people in their criminal careers. Prisons are not the answers to solving our crime problems and they are in fact, dangerously criminogenic. There is a significant societal reaction towards offenders and when they are treated like such, there lies the unanticipated consequence of creating the very behavior we seek to prevent. Society makes assumptions about offenders and sees them as people with poor character who will most likely recidivate. This public scrutiny can either shame the offender into conformity or push them into crime because they see no other means to overcoming their label. Chiricos, Barrick, Bales and Bontrager (2007) conducted a study on the fate of convicted felons facing probation. In support of labeling theory, Chiricos et. al. concluded that, being adjudicated a felon significantly and substantially increases the likelihood of recidivism in comparison with those who have had adjudication withheld ( Cullen, Lilly Ball, 2011, p. 151). Further research on the effects of imprisonment has been conducted by criminologists in which have also supported labeling theory. Three general conclusions have been resulted which claim that a custodial sanction has either a null effect or criminogenic effect, the longer the time spent in prison leads to a higher likelihood of recidivism and lastly, the harsher the prisoner living conditions, the higher the likelihood of reoffending (Cullen et. al., 2011). A meta analysis of 50 studies analyzed the effect of prison sentences on recidivism and found that longer prison sentences were associated with higher recidivism rates for both high and low risk offenders. It was also reported that lengthy exposure to the harsh conditions of prison life and the institutionalization resulting from that living, has both short and long term effects on an individuals ability to readjust to life outside prison (Visher Travis, 2003). It is important to realize that there are collateral effects of incarceration and the reentry process is fundamentally a dynamic, social process. The public stigma attached to an ex-convict status seriously affects the reintegration process. We can deduce that prisons may in fact be doing more harm than good. REINTERGRATION AND POSTRELEASE Recidivism is directly affected by post prison reintegration and adjustment. This is in turn, dependent upon four sets of factors: personal and situational characteristics, social environment of peers, family, community and state-level policies (Visher et. al., 2003). Understanding an individuals pathway to reintegration and the various support systems necessary, both privately and governmentally are crucial to a successful integration. Reconnecting with the institutions of society is a goal and a process in which a released offender must consistently work through and one to which policymakers need to take attention to. In 1994, the Bureau of Justice Statistics conducted the largest study of its kind when it examined criminal recidivism using a sample of 300,000 prisoners released in 15 states. The study found that 67.5 percent of prisoners were arrested for a new offense within three years and 51.8 percent were back in prison for committing a new offense or violating their parole. T hese percentages demand for progress in the reintegration process. In 2002, the federal government awarded $100 million dollars to the states in order to help develop more effective reentry programs for those released from prisons (Visher et. al., 2003). Similar to the social bond theory, the process of reintegration is dependant upon a prisoners attachment and bonds to society. Strong ties between prisoners and their families have the strongest positive impact on their post release success. A commitment to family roles is imperative to avoiding a life of crime. Rejoining the labor market and ensuring stable and consistent employment is also crucial in the process and often this element is diminished for prisoners who have dismal job prospects given that they have learned few marketable job skills while institutionalized. These offenders will often find difficulty in finding a job while being labeled as an ex-convict (Cullen et. al., 2011). The stigma of a criminal record is a significant barrier in the search for employment. Watts Nightingale (1996) reported that as many as 60% of ex-offenders are not employed within one year after their release and this figure is partly due to the limited availability of felon-friendly employers ( Counsel on Crime and Justice, 2006). Laub and Sampson found that incarceration as a juvenile had a negative effect on later job stability, which was also negatively related to ones continued involvement in crime over the course of their life (Bahr, Armstrong, Gibbs, Harris Fisher, 2005). Many offenders will leave jail feeling unprepared for their release and face obstacles in their way towards becoming a healthy and productive member of their communities. In a focus group study of women and men, researchers found that substance abuse, employment, and housing were the most significant factors that facilitated or blocked successful reintegration into communities (Weiss, Hawkins, Despinos, 2010). Leaving a highly structured environment like a prison for an unstructured society leaves many decisions and responsibility for an individual to consider. Post release is a highly vulnerable time for ex-convicts and their susceptibility to negativity is very probable. COLLATERAL EFFECTS OF IMPRISONMENT Recently, the effects of imprisonment on families and communities have been becoming a focus of research for some. Hundreds of thousands of prisoners return to their communities annually and therefore, the reentry process has become an increasing interest. The extents of the consequences that result from mass incarceration often go beyond just the individual offender but also onto their families and their communities. Research has indicated that due to the rise in incarceration rates, there has also been an increase in broken homes and disenfranchised communities (Counsel on Crime and Justice, 2006). The Counsel on Crime and Justice introduced the existence of the concept of collateral effects which refers to the unintended negative consequences that result from an offenders conviction and incarceration. Incarceration effects more than just the one being locked away and the costs of imprisonment are paid both directly and indirectly on many levels. Imprisonment can directly negatively affect the offenders family and children and can include personal, social, financial, emotional, psychological, and physical concerns. Social and economic structures of communities are also affected. Researchers will also argue that the removal of offenders from communities does harm, especially in communities of color (Counsel on Crime and Justice, 2006). Incarceration can also be conceptualized as a form of coerced mobility. Coerced mobility is a practice that takes large numbers of males out of inner-city communities for prolonged absences (Cullen et. al., 2011). While it would be appropriate to suggest that offenders are liabilities in their communities, theorists also suggest that they are also assets to the community in the sense that they are members of their own social networks as well as income providers. Therefore, the elimination of these offenders from communities will also result in social disorganization and weak economic development. THE CREATION OF AN AT-RISK POPULATION Many people tend to forget the fact that imprisonment affects more than just the individual being imprisoned. Incapacitation can be contagious and unintentionally creates an at-risk population for some. For example, today there are an increasing number of children with incarcerated parents. It is estimated that 1.5 to 2 million children are affected nationwide by incarcerated parents (Miller, 2006). There is evidence to suggest that these children are responding negatively to being separated from their parent. A child with an incarcerated parent is often left feeling depressed and sad which leads to externalizing behaviors that may include aggression and delinquent activity. Approximately 50% of youths in the correctional system have a parent in the adult correctional system. Children with parents in prison are 5 to 6 times more at-risk to become involved in the criminal justice system, however the short and long-term effects of this phenomenon are difficult to accurately quantify (M iller, 2006). We can therefore observe that in this aspect, prisons are causing more harm than good by creating a repercussion factor. More crimes are essentially being committed or going to be committed as a result of someone being taken out of the community, especially in the case of a person who had family bonds tying them to the community. Children and youth are impressionable and vulnerable beings who are learning by example. The reality of incarceration in their home life is a life-altering experience, which can often set the course or direction for their own path towards criminal behavior. LIFE COURSE PERSPECTIVE VERSUS DETERRENT THEORY There is much research on why people commit crime, but much less research about why people who have committed criminal acts choose to desist from crime. In reviewing the post release life of offenders, the theory to focus on is life course perspective. Refraining from crime depends on ones local life circumstances. There are certain transitions that can help to increase social bonds and may help to alter a criminal trajectory. Bahr et. al (2005) explored the entry process by interviewing 51 parolees three times, over a period of three months from their release from prison. Of the 51 parolees, 10 were reincarcerated within six months after their release from crime. The findings suggest that overall, a network of family relationships is important in making the transition from prison life to community life. The extent of ones family bonds helps to change the criminal trajectories of parolees. The quality of the parent-child bond also significantly influenced the likelihood of a parolee returning to prison. While there have been established links between incapacitation and crime on a negative standpoint, there are also findings that support incarceration as a deterrent. Incarceration can influence criminal careers based on two strands of criminological theory, those that focus on the role of punishment and that which focuses on the relationship between past and future criminal activity (Bhati et. al., 2008). A key policy question in criminology is whether incarceration serves as a deterrent, criminogenic or null effect on subsequent criminal activity. Given that a lack of research exists in this area, Bhati et. al. (2008) conducted a study on this topic by developing micro-trajectories using information from past arrest patterns. The date used in this research came from a larger study on recidivism of prisoners released in 1994, which was collected by the Bureau of Justice Statistics. A total sample of 32,628 persons was studied across 15 states. The findings reported that 96 percent of the releasees were either deterred from future offending or merely incapacitated by their incarceration. A small percentage consisting of 4 percent of the releasees exhibited a criminogenic effect. This study is not consistent with the labeling theory hypothesis but instead is more in favor of deterrence-based theories. However, this data also raised the question of generalizibility as it only consists of data on 15 states in a country of 50. DISCUSSION In review of the literature on institutionalization, incarceration and its effect on crime, we can conclude that there is significant evidence linking incarceration with crime. While researchers have struggled to accurately quantify the degree to which crime reduction is attributable to imprisonment, the truth remains that prisons may actually be doing more harm than good. The effect of incarceration on subsequent criminal activity at the individual level is still far from being recognized and further research on the area is needed. However, we can recognize that the incarceration experience as a form of punishment tends to have varied effects on offenders. For some it may operate as a deterrent, others as a criminogenic factor and for some irrelevant either way. It is sad to realize that in our society, one single deviant event can be enough to stigmatize a person indefinitely as an offender or as a deviant person. Some offenders leave prison and make the case that they have permane ntly changed and are reformed, new people. Unfortunately, there is a negative bias with this, and labeling theorists will agree that regardless of whatever reformation is claimed, the deviant stigma will continue to exist. For some, ones past behavior is the best predictor of their future behavior. Researchers can support this by finding that well over half of ex-prisoners are returned to prison within 3 years of their release. In todays world it is much easier to establish oneself as deviant, than it is to establish ones credentials as a reformed person. As a result of labeling theory, many members of society are unwilling to take a chance on a once incarcerated individual who appears to be trying to make positive steps forward. These obstacles only hinder an offenders chance for effective survival and reintegration into society. Incapacitation strategies seek to reduce crime and do so in some ways. It is true that incarcerated offenders are prevented by incapacitation from committing further crimes, but at what cost to themselves and to society. Incapacitation strategies take a slice out of an individuals career, but whos to tell that that career will cease once they are back in the free world. The United States currently has one of the highest incarceration rates in the world with over two million people under the jurisdiction of correctional authorities (Weiss et al., 2010). The majority of this rate can be blamed on the get tough on crime movement and the nations continued war on drugs. In comparison to other industrialized nations, these rates are five to eight times higher and have risen significantly over the last thirty years (Weiss et al., 2010). The criminal justice systems use of correctional facilities to punish those members of society who violate laws and commit crimes is a method based on the concept of deterrence. The idea of becoming institutionalized and taken out of society for a period of time is suppose to make an individual recognize his/her bad behavior to the point to where he/she will no longer behave in such a way for fear of becoming institutionalized again. At the same time, society can be at peace knowing that that person is no longer a current threat to society. However, the stages involved in this transition involve many negative aspects, which question its intended function. The process of institutionalization and becoming prisonized is a traumatic event filled with psychological changes that in some cases never heal or reshape themselves. Institutionalization desensitizes offenders and creates hardened criminals, the very thing it seeks to prevent. During prisonization, physical and psychological trans formations occur which negatively changes an individual, but are however, necessary in order for an individual to survive the entirety of the experience. During the time in which an offender is incarcerated, those close to him such as his family and community may be suffering as a result of this imprisonment. An offender with children loses the ability to bond with their child and as a result, the child faces the risk of becoming scared from the experience. This detachment from a parent can result in negative forms of behavior and delinquency and as research has demonstrated, children with incarcerated parents have a much higher risk for getting involved in correctional settings themselves. In this respect, imprisonment promotes crime. The community also suffers greatly when those are taken out of it. People are assets to a community in the sense that they are members of the social networks and everyone, a possible income provider. The elimination of offenders from communities results in social disorganization and weak economic development. When there is a weak economic and social disorganization, a breeding place for crime will persi st. Prison life is another world, one that often does not make ease for a smooth transition back to reality. Research has shown that the stage of reintegration back into society once being institutionalized, is a very critical stage and to which is dependant on several factors. The life course perspective focuses on the steps necessary in ones life to avoid a criminal trajectory. A combination of life course theory and social bond theory creates a medium to which explains the elements necessary for a successful reintegrated life, void of crime. Family bonds, especially that of child-parent bonds, are extremely important in the reintegration process. Socialization with positive peers and consistent and steady employment are also crucial to the process. A lack of one or more of these bonds creates an opportunity to allow for crime to justify means. In this process, an offender is also combating stigmatization. In accordance with labeling theory, ex-convicts have a difficult time in their r eintegration period due to the stigma that is placed upon them. For some, this presents a hardship that is often impossible to defeat and some offenders will often give into their label and become self-fulfilling prophecies. Labeling theory appears to be a valid effect of institutionalization as research has shown that as many as half of the offenders released from prison will return within three years of their release. This evidence can support labeling theory as an obstacle in the way of successful reintegration and deterrence from recidivism. As we move towards an era highly focused on a punitive system of justice versus a rehabilitative approach, policy makers need to assess whether prison systems are really the answer to obtaining intended objectives. Incarceration is increasing at an all time record yet crime is not decreasing at an all time record. There are too many strings attached with the process of incarceration, and many of these strings lead to the realization that in the overall scheme of things, prison does more harm than good. Research accurately quantifying this finding needs to further be evaluated and discussed, but there is a consistent finding within this review, which significantly addresses the issues associated with the effects of institutionalization and its negative impact on the offender and society as a whole.

Africa Essay -- essays research papers

Europe tried to take many countries, Africa being one of them. The European countries had an effect on Africa today throughout all the primes. Europe had an effect on the African way of life, that in some ways were good, and in some ways bad. Imperialism is defined as the extension or rule or influence by one government, nation, or society over the political, economic, or cultural life of another. European nations decided they wanted land in the mostly unexplored continent, and they took it, without the consent of the African people. Europe brought Christian ideas into Africa. Religion was changed from what it would have been to Christianity today. If you look at most of the countries in Africa such as Angola, Congo, Ghana or Zimbabwe the main religion practiced is Christianity. You can see that Protestant and Catholic groups are about equally represented throughout the continent basically leading back to the Christian religion. Before the Europeans came to Africa their main religion was Islam. Europeans brought missionaries into Africa and started changing their religion or preaching about Christianity. When they bought a slave they would teach that slave to practice the Christian religion as well. Twenty-five percent of Africa is Christian. Christian churches are growing rapidly in the nations south of the Sahara and especially in southern Africa. It just proves that Imperialism in Africa changed the religion and peoples beliefs today. European missionaries introduced Ch...